The Mughal Empire, also spelled Moghul or Mogul, was a powerful dynasty that ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent (approximately 3.2 million square kilometers), from the 16th to the 18th century.  At its zenith, it stretched from Afghanistan and Kashmir in the north to the Deccan Plateau in the south. The Mughals controlled the territory formerly known as Hindustan.

Founded by Babur, a descendant of the Mongol conquerors Timur and Genghis Khan, the Mughal Empire witnessed a period of great glory, diversity, and turmoil. The Mughals left a legacy on the culture, architecture, and administration of the region, and their stories continue to fascinate and inspire people today.

Who were the Mughals?

The Mughals and the Mongols shared a close linguistic and genealogical connection. The term “Mughal” (also spelled “Mogul” or “Mughūl”) originated from “Mongol.” This linguistic connection is attributed to the absence of the “g” sound, as in “goat,” in the Arabic language, where the “gh” sound is used instead. Babur, a descendant of both Tamerlane and Genghis Khan—two of the most powerful and influential conquerors in history—inherited their ambition and courage. He went on to establish a new empire in India.

Before delving into the rich history of the Mughal Empire, let’s take a moment to explore a bit about its predecessors, particularly Tamerlane.

The Birth of the Timurid Dynasty: Mughal Predecessors

Timur, also known as Tamerlane, was indeed the great-great-grandfather of Babur. The English term ‘Tamerlane’ is derived from ‘Timur the Lame’. Interestingly, Timur the Lame, or Timur Lung in Persian, earned his nickname ‘Lung’ because of his disabilities. His injuries disabled him for life. Timur established the Timurid dynasty in the late 14th century, and Babur, his descendant, went on to found the Mughal dynasty in the Indian subcontinent.

Timur, born in Uzbekistan on April 9, 1339, emerged as a powerful ruler in the Muslim world. He claimed to be the champion of Islam and waged wars against various Muslim and non-Muslim states, including the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the Ottoman Empire, and the Delhi Sultanate. His domain stretched across Central Asia, Persia, and regions of India that belong to Delhi was one of the wealthiest cities in the world at the time of Timur’s conquest. The capture of the Delhi Sultanate in 1398 was a fiercely brutal battle. Later, the descendants of Timur, particularly the Mughals, also had multiple encounters with the Delhi Sultanate during the Mughal Empire.

Timur, who passed away on February 18, 1405, left behind a significant legacy as a conqueror and ruler. However, after Temure’s died, his descendants (including sons and grandsons) faced the challenge of maintaining their influence and power. Despite their efforts, they could not consolidate the empire. Different Timurid states (late medieval Turco-Mongol dominions circa 1400–1483) emerged, each with its rulers and territories. These states played a pivotal role in shaping the political and cultural landscape of Greater Persia, encompassing present-day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, substantial portions of Central Asia, the South Caucasus, and even parts of contemporary Pakistan, North India, and Turkey. Their impact extended to literature, art, architecture, science, religion, and trade.

Mughal Dynasty

Babur Empire 1456–1494: The Founder of the Mughal Empire

As mentioned earlier, after Timur’s death, his empire was divided among his descendants. One of them was Babur, who was born in Central Asia on February 14th, 1483, in Andijan, Uzbekistan. His true name was Zahiruddin Babar. “Babur” was a nickname that means “tiger” in Persian.

Inside the Dynastic Battles of Babur’s Rule

Babur’s father passed away when he was just eleven years old. His family faced internal power struggles, leading to dynastic turmoil. Having grown up in challenging circumstances, Babur’s personality was shaped by adversity. At the young age of fifteen, he embarked on his first military expedition. 

Over the next two decades, Babur achieved remarkable conquests, he captured Samarkand (formerly Bukhara), parts of Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan. In 1525, he crossed the Indus River and entered northern India where he encountered the Sultan of Delhi Ibrahim Lodhi.

Babur, known for his fierce determination, led his forces in the decisive battle at Panipat for the capture of the Delhi Sultanate. Despite being outnumbered by Ibrahim’s forces, Babur had distinct advantages that proved crucial in the battle’s outcome. Babur’s troops used weapons powered by gunpowder, giving them a technological edge they had acquired from the Ottoman army. It is important to mention that the Janissaries of the Turkish military were the first ones to use gunpowder. Additionally, Babur’s ethnically diverse army, including Persians, Turks, Arabs, and local Indians, had another advantage, bringing varied skills to the battlefield.

Babur’s Achievements

Babur’s victory established the foundation for the rise of the Mughal Empire in the subcontinent. Nevertheless, ruling in Hindustan (India) posed challenges. The people spoke different languages, unlike Babur’s followers who knew Persian and Turkish. Babur faced the perception of being an invader, primarily due to his reliance on military power. In order to solidify his rule, he implemented strategies such as rewarding commanders, compensating soldiers, and expanding his available resources.

As he expanded his dominion, he faced not only the complexities of ruling over diverse subjects but also the formidable forces of nature. The unpredictable weather, varying heat, humidity, and arid landscapes across Hindustan posed daunting challenges for Babur and his commanders. His memoir, the Baburnama, provides invaluable insights into his ambitions, motivations, and experiences during the establishment of the Mughal Empire in Hindustan.

Babur’s Approach to Religion

Religion played a significant role in Babur’s life. Coming from Central Asia, he encountered stark differences in culture and faith upon arriving in India. Unable to recruit commanders from his homeland, Babur turned to local Hindu aristocrats who converted to Islam. His pragmatic approach allowed him to govern effectively in a land where people spoke different languages and followed diverse customs.

Babur followed the Naqshbandi order of Sufism, a mystical branch of Sunni Islam that emphasized a personal connection with God. He respected the local Sufi traditions prevalent in Hindustan during that era. Remarkably open-minded, Babur appreciated the rich tapestry of cultures and religions, including Sikhism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism. He immersed himself in Hindu art and architecture, even learning Sanskrit and participating in Hindu festivals.

Intriguing Facts About Babur:

• Babur was an educated Timurid prince who wrote his memoirs, called Baburnama, in which he recorded his thoughts on various subjects, such as astronomy, geography, statecraft, warfare, nature, arts, culture, and philosophy.
• The original Baburnama was written in Chagatai Turkic, the language of Babur’s ancestors. However, Babur’s grandson, Akbar, had it translated into Persian, a language more widely understood in the Mughal Empire. Akbar also added miniature paintings to the manuscript, illustrating the events and themes described in the Baburnama. These intricate paintings can be found in various museums around the world, providing visual insights into Babur’s life and times.
• The 16th-century Baburi Mosque, commissioned by Babur during the Mughal era in Ayodhya, India, became a source of controversy due to its location on a site revered by Hindus as Lord Rama’s birthplace. This belief sparked conflicts between Hindu and Muslim communities, resulting in the destruction of the mosque in 1992 and the building of a new temple. The Baburi Mosque and its aftermath have been one of the most contentious and controversial issues in the history of modern India.
• Babur mentioned his infatuation for a boy named  Baburi or Andijani in his memoir and expressed his feelings towards him without fear. He even wrote several Persian poems about him. Babur was bisexual and had relationships with both men and women. Some believe that the Babri Mosque was named after that boy Baburi.

“From time to time, Baburi used to come into my presence, but out of modesty and bashfulness, I could never look straight at him. How then could I engage in conversation (ikhtilat) and recital (hikayat)?”

Humayun 1508-1556

Humayun’s Reign and Family Rivalries

Humayun, also known as Nasiruddin Muhammad Humayun succeeded his father, Babur, after he died in 1529. He was the eldest son of Emperor Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire.  

In many ways, Babur’s sons mirrored the family rivalries he had witnessed among his siblings. The struggle for power and influence was a recurring theme in their lives, echoing the tumultuous history of Timurid princes. Babur had four sons, each with their dynastic ambitions. The older brothers, Humayun and Kamran Mirza were the primary rivals, while the younger brothers Hindal and Askari switched loyalties based on their convenience.

The rivalry between the siblings reached a breaking point when Kamran’s forces killed Hindal. Engaged, Humayun ordered both Kamran and Askari into exile and ruled as the second Mughal emperor from 1530 to 1540 and then again from 1555 to 1556. There was a fifteen-year break in Mughal rule when Sher Shah Suri founded the Sur dynasty by defeating Humayun.

Superstitions and Unconventional Governance

Humayun, the second Mughal Emperor, harbored grand ambitions of establishing a powerful empire. However, instead of adopting conventional ruling techniques, he leaned heavily on superstitions and mystical practices.

Here are some unconventional methods he employed: Humayun followed the Shattari Sufi order, seeking cosmic power through spiritual practices. He practiced yoga to harness cosmic energies, believing himself to be the center of a microcosm. His royal tents were divided into the 12 zodiac signs, aligning his rule with celestial influences. Each day was associated with a celestial body. For instance, Tuesday represented Mars, and he would dress in red robes accordingly. Tuesdays were reserved for punishing criminals and war prisoners. Unfortunately, these unconventional methods led to uprisings and challenges within his realm.

Expeditions and Challenges- Unfavorable Climate of Hindustan

Despite his governance struggles, Humayun continued his father Babur’s expansion efforts. initially achieved some successes, but later faced retaliation from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat and Sher Shah Suri in Bengal. Although Humayun conquered Bengal, his forces were not accustomed to the humidity of the region and suffered greatly.

While Humayun was on an expedition to Gujarat and Bengal, his brother Hindal proclaimed himself the new ruler of Agra. Humayun had to retake Agra in order to secure his throne. His half-brothers, particularly Kamran Mirza, contested his authority and contributed to internal strife. 

Humayun faced military setbacks against Sher Shah Suri and lost control of important areas, including Delhi that weakened his rule. Humayun exiled himself for 15 years in the court of Shah Tahmasp. During exile, Humayun faced hardship and turned to opium, which affected his health and rule. 

Sher Shah Suri- Establishment of Sur Dynasty 1540 -1556-A Break in Mughal Dynasty

Sher Shah Suri reorganized his forces and defeated Humayun, ruling from 1538 to 1545. As a ruler, Sher Sha Suri set new examples for his successors to idealize, introducing the first rupaya, a silver coin that became the standard currency in India. One of his most remarkable achievements was the construction of the Grand Trunk Road, also known as the “Shahra-i-Sher Sha Suri”. The historical route in South Asia runs from Kabul through modern-day Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. However, Sher Shah’s rule brought destruction to Hindus, as he destroyed many historical sites to build the new Sur Empire.

After the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun attempted to restore his Mughal empire. However, within seven months of regaining power, he died in an accident, tripping off of the stairs of his library in 1556. Humayun’s rule saw decentralization, with semi-autonomous provinces.

Akbar 1556 – 1605

Abdul Fateh Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, better known as Akbar the Great, succeeded his father Humayun and ruled the Mughal Empire for nearly five decades, from 1556 to 1605. Unlike his father and grandfather, he spent most of his life in Hindustan and was also born in Sindh (present-day Pakistan).

Early Life, Challenges, and Initial Years of Rule

After his father Humayun’s death, the twelve-year-old Akbar was entrusted to the care of his father’s general Bhairam Khan, and his uncle Kamran. After the death of Humayun, the Sur dynasty began to regain control of Delhi. At just 13 years old, Akbar marched to reclaim Delhi and beheaded Hemu, a Hindu minister of the Sur Empire.

In the initial years of his rule, Akbar remained somewhat distant from the court, allowing Bhairam Khan to manage affairs. His interests focused on activities like Mongolian-style hunting, capturing wild elephants, and engaging with Hindu advisors.

Struggles and Achievements

Akbar faced struggles with dyslexia throughout his life, which made learning difficult. However, he possessed an extraordinary memory that allowed him to store all the information and details of the documents read to him. Akbar was known for his interest in literature and intellectual pursuits.

He commissioned the creation of several books, including the Akbarnama, a detailed account of his reign written by his court historian, Abul Fazl. Akbar also wrote poetry and helped in the compilation of the Ain-i-Akbari (constitution of Akbar), a comprehensive document that detailed the administrative and cultural aspects of his empire. He maintained a personal library containing over 24,000 books in multiple languages.

Reforms and Governance

In contrast to his predecessors, Babur and Humayun, who emphasized war and rewarded commanders for loyalty, Akbar adopted a different approach. He replaced non-compliant commanders with more compliant ones, securing loyalty from local rulers and landowners. 

Akbar strategically formed matrimonial alliances with Rajput princesses. He married several Rajput princesses, including Harkha Bai, Rukmavati Bai, and the famous Mariam-uz-Zamani (Hira Kunwari), who was the mother of his heir, Emperor Jahangir. These marriages helped in building goodwill and fostering political alliances with the Rajput kingdoms.

Akbar implemented the Dahsala tax reforms, basing revenue on one-third of the average production of the past ten years. To motivate his noblemen, he introduced a ranking system, ranging from 10 to 5,000 points, and promoted military officers to administrative roles, such as governors of newly conquered territories. This approach is reminiscent of the Janissaries in the Ottoman military.

Akbar also introduced the Zabt system, a method of measuring and assessing land to determine land revenue based on the actual productivity of the land. This initiative not only increased agricultural productivity but also boosted state revenue.

Cultural Integration and Religious Harmony

During Akbar’s reign, the Mughal Empire became a secular empire with cultural integration and religious harmony, known for its moral values and religious tolerance. Akbar actively promoted interfaith dialogues and abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims, particularly Hindus.

Akbar attempted to create an ideology out of Islamic and Hindu elements called called “Din-i Ilahi”. Although it did not gain widespread acceptance, it was a symbol of his efforts to promote religious harmony. According to the medieval Indian historian, Iqtidar Alam, Akbar borrowed this concept from the Timurid concept of Yasa-i Changezi (Code of Genghis Khan). One of the most significant departures from his predecessors was Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance, known as Sulh-i-kul, meaning peace with all, which aimed to create a harmonious and inclusive society.

Expansion and Legacy

Akbar played an active role in military planning and personally led his army. He expanded the Mughal Empire by conquering Bengal and Gujarat, and strategically connecting India with Asia, Africa, and Europe. Shifting the capital to Lahore addressed the challenges posed by Kandahar. His ideology focused on a strong, centralized empire without cultivating a cult of personality. Instead, he aimed to consolidate power, promote religious tolerance, and enhance administrative efficiency. This inclusive policy successfully integrated the Hindu majority into the Mughal administration.

Akbar continued expanding his empire and eventually died on October 27, 1605, after suffering from dysentery.

Jahangir 1569-1627

Jahangir’s Reign and Personal Life, Family, and Indulgences

Nasiruddin Mohammad Saleem assumed the title Jahangir meaning “global dominion” upon becoming the Mughal emperor. He also adopted the additional title Nuruddin, signifying the “light of religion.” 

As Akbar’s only surviving son, Jahangir had a reputation as a somewhat spoiled son, indulging in worldly pleasures like alcohol and maintaining a large harem with 20 wives. His journal detailed his choices and actions, reflecting a lifestyle marked by excesses and indulgence in sensual pleasures, including relationships with slave women.

Akbar, being aware of Jahangir’s personality and character, had a preference for his grandson Khusrau Mirza as a successor, but due to time constraints, he couldn’t formalize this choice in a will before his death. Following Akbar’s demise, Khusrau Mirza challenged his father Jahangir’s succession. In response, Jahangir imprisoned his son and subjected him to a cruel fate, blinding him by piercing his eyes with wires. 

European Influence, Rebellion, and Jahangir’s Addiction 

Jahangir centralized power around himself and presented himself as a holy figure, that departed him from his subjects. He struggled with addiction to opium and alcohol, which had adverse effects on his health. During his reign, the Portuguese had already established their presence, and later the Dutch company arrived and established East India Company in the subcontinent. This was a time when crops like maize and tobacco, as well as silver from America, started entering India as Europeans used them to purchase Indian textiles, Chinese silk, and spices.

Unlike his predecessors, Jahangir never personally took part in wars. His army was successful in expanding the empire to the western and eastern regions but he failed to integrate the newly conquered territories into Hindustan, leading to the weakening of his empire. Jahangir attempted to negotiate the submission of the rulers of Ajmer and Deccan, but rebellions against the Mughal Empire persisted.

Noor Jahan (Jahangir’s wife): The Light and Power of Harem

Noor Jahan, recognized as the light of the harem and Jahangir’s wife, wielded significant influence during his reign. Jahangir heavily relied on her input in state affairs, and her impact extended to various domains such as trade, farming, agriculture, architecture, and even coinage. Jahangir’s memoirs attest to Noor Jahan’s profound role in his life. She influenced his hunting skills and played a role in his efforts to reduce alcohol consumption. Additionally, she demonstrated care and compassion during his illnesses.

Noor Jahan’s influence extended to designing gardens, palaces, and religious policies. In return, she received unprecedented honors and privileges. There are suspicions surrounding her first husband’s death, suggesting it might have been orchestrated by Jahangir to marry her.

Noor Jahan strategically married her daughter from a previous marriage to Jahangir’s younger son, aiming to keep Khuram (the third son of Jahangir and the Rajput princess Manmati) away from the throne. Ironically, her brother, Asif Khan, whom she sought to install as a minister after Jahangir’s death, supported Khuram against her wishes, leading to a complex political dynamic.

Jahangir’s Demise, Burial and Legacy

Jahangir died in 1627 after suffering from pneumonia during his journey from Kabul to Kashmir. He was buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of Lahore, according to his will.

Compared to his predecessors, Jahangir was considered a weak emperor unfit for such a vast empire. Nevertheless, despite being perceived as a weak emperor, Jahangir left a lasting legacy through his love for art, nature, and culinary delights. Many dishes originated during his time, often called Jahangiri dishes. 

Hiran Minar in Shahpura, Pakistan, is an example of Jahangir’s fondness for pets. Jahangir built Hiran Minar (antelope tower) in remembrance of his beloved antelope named Mansraj, known as the “Lord of all Animals.”

Shahjahan 1556 – 1657

Shahjahan’s Rise to Power and Family Rivalry

Shah Jahan (King of the World), originally named Kurram Mirza, proclaimed himself the “King of the World” and seized power. He eliminated anyone who posed a potential threat, including his stepmother Noor Jahan, half-brother, nephews, and the sons of his deceased older brother, who had remained loyal to Shah Jahan as descendants even after their father, Daniyal Mirza, died of alcoholism.

Shahjahan’s Opulent Expenditures on Art and Architecture

Despite inheriting an empty treasury, Shahjahan indulges in lavish spending on art and architecture. He constructs the magnificent Peacock Throne, adorned with gems and gold. Notable architectural projects include the Taj Mahal in Agra, the Red Fort (Lal Quilla) in Delhi, Jama Masjid in Delhi, and Jama Masjid in Agra.

Military Expansion and Financial Challenges

To strengthen his military might, Shahjahan commissioned the production of cannons and introduced Marwari horses into the army. However, these endeavors contributed to financial strain, leading to increased taxation. Shahjahan expanded his empire by capturing territories like Bangalore and Bijapur. Bengal became Shahjahan’s stronghold, as it was the most influential region during that time due to the Portuguese’s trading posts, agriculture, and textile industry.

Sibling rivalry emerged among Shahjahan’s sons, with Dara Shikoh, his eldest son from his favored wife, becoming his preferred successor. However, Dara’s younger three brothers opposed his ascension. Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan’s third son, emerged as the most powerful contender. Shah Jahan appointed him as a commander of Deccan. Aurangzeb conquered the entire Deccan region and eventually imprisoned his father Shah Jahan. Upon assuming rulership, he executed his elder brother and rival, Dara Shikoh, in 1662.

Aurangzeb 1658 -1707

Muhi-ud-din Muhammad, commonly known as Aurangzeb and titled ‘Alamgir,’ meaning ‘world conqueror,’ ruled for approximately 49 years. He is known for his conservative religious beliefs and efforts to promote Islam in Hindustan. During his reign, he ordered the destruction of Hindu and Buddhist temples, and he took strict measures against Muslims who did not adhere to Islamic principles. Sufi mystics who opposed his attempts to radicalize Islam were also executed. Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was publicly executed, and there were instances of mass conversions of Hindus to Islam.

Moreover, in 1679, Aurangzeb implemented the Jizya tax on non-Muslims, which was a levy applicable to non-Muslims who did not serve in the Mughal military.

Rebellions, Division of the Kingdom, and Aurangzeb’s Death

When his son rebelled, with support from Hindu Marathas and Maharajas, Aurangzeb took drastic measures. He imprisoned his daughter Zeb-un-Nisa, suspecting her involvement in assisting her brother, and she later died in captivity. Aurangzeb also sent his son Akbar into exile.

The Mughals had expanded their empire to a point where it burdened the subjects more than it benefited them. Aurangzeb lacked administrative power, technology, and the manpower necessary to effectively govern such a large empire. Consequently, he divided his kingdom among his remaining sons, believing that none of them was capable of ruling the empire as a whole. He passed away in 1707.

Despite Aurangzeb’s attempts to protect his sons from rivalry over succession by dividing the kingdom among them, all three princes—Muazzam, Azam, and Khan Bakhsh—declared themselves rulers of the empire.

Bahadur Shah-1 ( 1707-1712

Muazzam captured all treasuries in Agra and declared himself the emperor, titled Bahadur Shah (1707-1712). He clashed with his brother Azam and killed him in battle. Bahadur Shah launched an attack and killed his third brother, who had fortified himself in Golconda.

To secure his throne, Bahadur Shah distributed his brother’s territories among mansabdars (local aristocrats). However, he lacked a strong connection with his subjects. Sikh and Rajput rebellions emerged in Rajasthan following the death of Bahadur Shah due to spleen enlargement in 1712.

All four of Bahadur Shah’s sons repeated history by engaging in familial conflict over the succession of the empire.

The Salatin (1713-1859)

The Decline of Mughal Rule and Division of the Empire

Following the end of the unified and once-mighty Mughal Empire, no single successor emerged with enough power to effectively govern the vast empire. As a result, the empire fragmented into smaller units. These fragmented territories were governed by various Mughal princes, who would later be known as “The Salatins” or Red Fort slum dwellers.

The Salatin Slum– Diminishing Privileges and External Intrigues

Among the sons of Bahadur Shah, Muazzuddin, also known as Jahandad Shah, briefly ascended to power. In the year 1713, during his short-lived reign, he established what would become the Salatin slum within the imposing walls of the Red Fort. In these quarters, the Mughal princes and their families took up residence. They could not venture beyond the fort’s boundaries without permission. In return for their loyalty, they received a fixed stipend.

The grandeur of the Mughals was fading. External forces increasingly meddled in the empire’s affairs, eroding the privileges and status of the once-mighty rulers. The Salatins, ensconced within the Red Fort, found themselves caught in this shifting tide of power. Their lives were marked by both confinement and uncertainty.

The Growth of the Salatin and the Next Fifteen Mughal Rulers

Over time, The Salatin population swelled. The next fifteen rulers—each hailing from the slums of the Red Fort—would shape the destiny of the empire. Among them, Farrukhsiyar emerged as the first of these slum rulers. His ascent to power came with the aid of the Sayyid brothers, Abdulla Khan and Sayyid Hussain. These brothers, became the true kingmakers, meticulously supervised the Salatins, and strategically selected suitable princes to ascend the Mughal throne.

The Influence of the Sayyid Brothers

The Sayyid brothers traced their lineage back to the Hasham tribe a noble heritage that reached to Prophet Muhammad himself. Their father served as an Arab commander under Jahangir adding to their prestige. But it was their military acumen and political savvy that truly set them apart. They became the true power brokers behind the Mughal curtain. It was they who anointed and dethroned rulers, shaping the course of history.

The Sayyid brothers orchestrated the assassination of Jahandad and threw their support behind Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad (1719-1748) who ascended the Mughal throne. They also aimed to dispose of the incumbent ruler, Farrukhsiyar. 

However, In this power struggle, another Mughal prince from The Salatin, Muhammad Shah, emerged as the victor. He eliminated the Sayyid brothers and took control of the Mughal Empire. Unfortunately, his ineffective rule further contributed to the fragmentation of the once-mighty empire.

Muhammad Shah’s Reign and his Cultural Contributions

Despite the political turmoil, Muhammad Shah left an indelible mark on Mughal history. His patronage of the arts and literature was particularly noteworthy. Writing under the pen name Sada Rangila (meaning “Ever Joyous”), he celebrated life, love, and the human experience. 

During Muhammad Shah’s reign, Persian (the traditional court language) was replaced by Urdu. He commissioned translations of the Quran into Persian and Urdu.  Muhammad Shah’s patronage the visual arts. Raja Ravi Varma, a renowned painter, captured religious celebrations, hunting scenes, and poignant glimpses of the empire’s decline. The Mughal aesthetic found expression in these vivid depictions. 

Music thrived during Muhammad Shah’s reign. Qawwali, a form of Khyal (soulful) music, and classical Indian music flourished during his time. Remarkably, Muhammad Shah himself composed various Indian musical genres, including Bhairav, Kafi, and Dhamar, with themes of love and the festival of Holi.

The Weakening Empire, British Involvement, and the Exile of the Last Mughal Emperor

Despite these cultural achievements, the Mughal Empire was unraveling. European powers, notably the British, began meddling in Mughal affairs. Their involvement would prove decisive.

The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, faced exile in Burma. His sons fell victim to British aggression. Mughal monuments crumbled, and the Red Fort bore witness to encroachment, eventually transforming into British barracks.

The Mughals: Renowned for their tolerance, cultural diversity, and architectural marvels, the Mughal dynasty thrived under emperors like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. Their influence reverberated along the Silk Roads, facilitating the exchange of ideas, goods, and cultures between East and West. Agra, the empire’s capital, and the iconic city of Fatehpur Sikri emerged as vibrant hubs of trade and cultural fusion. The Mughal Empire played a pivotal role in spreading Islam across the region, forging connections with neighboring lands—Central Asia, Persia, and the Ottoman Empire. Their patronage of art, literature, and architecture extended far beyond their borders.

Sources:

• • Captivating History. (2020). The Mughal Empire: A Captivating Guide to the Mughal Empire in South Asia and the Impact the Mughals Had on the History of India (Exploring India’s Past). Captivating History.

• • Frankopan, P. (2015). The Silk Roads: A New History of the World. Vintage

• • Frankopan, P. (2015, June 15). Exploring the Significance of the Silk Roads in Shaping Global History. Silk Roads Blog. https://www.silkroadsblog.com/exploring-significance-silk-roads 

• • Mughal Empire. (2023, July 30). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire   

• •  Khan Academy. (n.d.). Mughal Empire. Khan Academy. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/whp-1750/xcabef9ed3fc7da7b:unit-1-the-world-in-1750/xcabef9ed3fc7da7b:1-3-expanding-to-a-global-scale/a/read-mughal-empire-beta   

• • Oriental Architecture. (n.d.). Akbari Sarai, Lahore. Oriental Architecture. https://orientalarchitecture.com/sid/844/pakistan/lahore/akbari-serai

• • Ananth Karthikeyan. (2019, May 12). The Prince from the Slum. DNA India. https://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-the-prince-from-the-slum-2748292

• • Kumar, A. (2015, November 07). Title of the article. DNA India Analysis. https://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-the-prince-from-the-slum-2748292THE MEMOIRS OF BABUR (washington.edu)