An Accidental Discovery of Gunpowder: The Precursor to Lethal Weapons
There is ample evidence that gunpowder was discovered and developed in ancient China and later made its way to Europe, possibly through the Mongolians or Arabs. Many historical accounts, including Marco Polo’s, describe how the Chinese used noise-making techniques to ward off evil spirits. They used young green bamboo sticks that, when thrown into the fire, burst due to the moisture turning into steam (just like fresh corn bursts with a cracking noise when put on a stove heat). The invention of gunpowder crackers later replaced this method of creating a loud noise to scare away evil entities.
Gunpowder Development by Chinese Alchemists
Chinese alchemists accidentally discovered gunpowder, but how? We all know that alchemy has been practised since ancient times in this region, including India and China. However, while Western chemists were focused on developing precious metals like gold, Chinese alchemists were more interested in finding an elixir of immortality. It’s a bit like how Western philosophy often leans towards material things, while Eastern thought tends to focus more on the spiritual side.
Spiritual immortality or longevity by harmonizing the body, mind, and spirit is part of Taoism philosophy that revolves around the Tao (or “the Way”) of purification, observation, and experimentation, eventually shaping ancient Chinese alchemy practices. One day, while mixing a few common ingredients, Chinese chemists accidentally set off an explosion. That was when they discovered the fascinating chemical combo we now know as gunpowder.
Early Experiments and Dangers
Influenced by Taoist philosophy, Chinese alchemists believed that purity was sacred and essential for achieving potent chemical reactions. They refined the key ingredients through careful observation and experimentation, ultimately developing a highly reactive and powerful form of gunpowder.
Early experiments in Chinese alchemy were undoubtedly risky, as alchemists manipulated metals and chemicals that posed known dangers. Tang dynasty emperor Li Chun 778 AD, for instance, suffered severe physical and mental health issues from consuming toxic alchemical elixirs, ultimately leading to his erratic behavior and assassination by Eunuchs or his court.
By A.D. 850, the hazards of these experiments were well-documented. The book Classified Essentials of the Mysterious Tao of the True Origin of Things mentions the dangers of various elixirs, cautioning against hazardous mixtures of sulfur, realgar, and saltpeter combined with honey, which could lead to fires and explosions.
Key Ingredients of Early Gunpowder (Fire Drug)
The key ingredients—saltpeter (niter), sulfur, and charcoal—were experimented with as part of alchemical practices. Alchemists noticed that when saltpeter, known for its ability to enhance flames, was combined with sulfur and charcoal in the right proportions, it could create a powerful explosion rather than just burn.
Why is saltpeter a key ingredient in gunpowder?
Saltpeter, a key ingredient in gunpowder, has a unique ability to release oxygen when heated, which intensifies fire. This release of oxygen is crucial for creating gunpowder’s explosive power. Early Chinese alchemists experimented with mixtures containing less saltpeter, resulting in vigorous burning but no explosions. These early forms were called “fire drugs.”
Here are a few details on how saltpeter is formed naturally. It is produced when bacteria break down Ammonia present in organic matter and animal waste into nitrates. These nitrates then react with potassium or calcium minerals in rocks to form salts like potassium/ calcium nitrate. Nitrates dissolve quickly in water. When it rains, they seep into the ground. During dry periods, the water evaporates, leaving nitrate salts on the soil surface that could be scraped off the soil’s surface.
The hot climate and alternating wet and dry seasons facilitated its natural production in China. When thrown into a fire, it enhances flames, and the cooks of that time were aware of this property of saltpeter.
How Gunpowder Becomes Explosive
To make gunpowder truly explosive, alchemists needed the right combination of ingredients. They added sulfur, which burns intensely, and charcoal as a fuel source. The sulfur increased the heat, causing the saltpeter to release oxygen more rapidly. When this oxygen was combined with the burning charcoal, it triggered an explosive reaction, leading to the powerful gunpowder we know today.
The three key ingredients—saltpeter, Charcoal, and Sulfur—occurred naturally in China, and Chinese alchemists were well-acquainted with their chemical and physical properties. They utilized these ingredients to create one of the most revolutionary inventions of their time.
This technology was later more refined and reached the point where the Chinese were able to make early cannons by filling this gunpowder in hollow bamboo sticks. Now, it was used not to ward off evil spirits but the enemy forces. However, its purpose was still to produce smoke and noise to scare away and startle the enemy. By the late 1200s, the Chinese had developed the first guns—devices that used gunpowder to fire projectiles, not just flames.
In China, the crack of exploding bamboo frightened away evil spirits and cleared the way for the coming year. Exploding bamboo was still popular when Marco Polo brought home his account of Cathay in 1295. A new method for making noise came into being—one based on a unique mixture of ingredients. A medieval Chinese text with the title “Dreams of the Glories of the Eastern Capital” describes a display that the Chinese called “huo yao,” or “fire drug.”
The Evolution of Gunpowder Technology and Its Journey to the West
The Song Chinese of 1264 were known for their handicraft skills, which further developed sophisticated gunpowder-based weapons. The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, initially feared these weapons but eventually adopted and improved upon them. This set the stage for advancements in military technology, with gunpowder eventually reaching Europe and altering the course of history. The source of gunpowder in Europe is still debated, with some attributing it to the Mongols and others to the Arabs.
The Huolongjing (Fire Dragon Manual) is a significant Chinese military text from the 14th century, attributed to Jiao Yu and Liu Bowen. It contains detailed descriptions and illustrations of various gunpowder weapons, such as early cannons.
As we know, Arabs traded with China via the Silk Road until the Mongols captured China and disrupted the ancient trade route.
The Arabic term for “Chinese snow,” which refers to saltpeter, is “thālaj al-ṣīn” (ثلج الصين), while the term for “Chinese flowers,” which refers to fireworks, is “zahra al-ṣīn” (زهرة الصين). These terms highlight the influence of Chinese technology on the Arab world during their vast empire, stretching from Spain to India.
By 1280, Arab warriors were using fire lances, and the Syrian Hasan al-Rammah wrote a guide on rockets and explosives, clearly drawing from Chinese sources. This suggests that knowledge of gunpowder may have transferred from East to West during that time.
Evidence That Europeans Borrowed the Recipe from China
Some Europeans claim that gunpowder originated in Europe, but there is compelling evidence that it was developed in China. Its evolution spanned centuries, with recorded formulas appearing as early as 1044.
In contrast, Europe’s first mention of gunpowder occurred in 1267, with no evidence of parallel development, suggesting that Europeans borrowed the fully developed technology from China. Further evidence of this transfer is seen in early European gunpowder recipes, which included poisons like sal ammoniac and arsenic—ingredients also used by the Chinese but with no impact on the powder’s effectiveness. This unlikely coincidence reinforces the conclusion that Europe inherited gunpowder technology directly from China.
Evolution of Cannons
It’s fascinating to note that three powerful gunpowder nations—the Mongols, Ottomans, and Mughals—were actually descendants of the Mongols. The Mongols learned the technique from the Chinese and spread it to other parts of the world, including Europe and America. Another interesting fact is that gunpowder technology was developed in the East in the 10th century and was later brought back to the East by the Mughals and other colonial powers in the 16th century.
The observant and curious Chinese alchemists, driven by the quest for immortality and influenced by Taoist philosophy, made groundbreaking advancements that profoundly impacted the world. But the world was never the same. The introduction of gunpowder weaponry brought immense costs, favoring strong centralized states. Permanent taxes were imposed to fund artillery and fortifications needed to protect cities from cannon attacks. Smaller city-states, unable to afford these expenses, lost power to centralized governments. This shift laid the foundation for a new world order driven by weaponry, setting the stage for the era of colonization.